Lets Talk Gemstones
By Edna B. Anthony, Gemologist
(Contact the author for permission to reproduce this
article in any form.)
P.O.# 62653; COLORADO SPRINGS, CO. 80962
The Tourmaline Group
[A CYCLOSILICATE]
BUERGERITE
CHROMDRAVITE
DRAVITE
ELBAITE
FERRIDRAVITE
LIDDICOATITE
TSILAISITE
SCHORL
UVITE
Our trip to Tucson this year provided the opportunity to see a number of
the species of gemstones in quantities that permitted comparison not usually
available at other sites. The range of quality, color, and price was extensive.
Knowledge of the properties of a gemstone and care in selection are imperative
in order to choose an appropriate gem. The popular tourmaline group presents
wide variations in color and quality from which to select outstanding gems
at very reasonable prices.
Tourmalines are classified as silicates. Silicates are minerals composed
of SiO4 tetrahedra arranged in various structural configurations that incorporate
other chemical elements in the structure. In tourmaline, the tetrahedra form
rings, where several different elements in various proportions can be accommodated.
Such a ring structure is known as a cyclosilicate. The tourmalines are a
group of extremely complex aluminum borosilicates (boron is the one constant
element in combination with the SiO4 tetrahedra) that crystallize in the
hexagonal (trigonal) crystal system. Numerous differences in physical and
optical properties exist in the various species. Elbaite and liddicoatite
form a continuous solution series, as do uvite and dravite. The nine species
most likely to be encountered by those involved in the jewelry industry are
the subject of this article. Elbaite and liddicoatite are the species most
used as gem material.
Some of the transparent color varieties of tourmaline are identified by commonly
used descriptive names. Achroite, meaning “without color,” denotes the colorless
variety. Pink and red stones are often called rubellite. An exceptionally
intense electric pink material is found in California. The strong pleochroism
of the unique deep greenish-blue Indicolite (indigolite) may cause the gem
to appear green or seem to lose transparency. A deposit near Newry, Maine
is the source of some of the finest blue-green and red tourmalines. All shades
of green tourmalines are sometimes called verdelite. Traces of chrome impart
an especially vivid color to the chrome-green tourmaline. The violet-red
colors (prevalent from a deposit in Siberia) are known as siberites. Bi-color
and parti-color crystals show a variation of color along the length of the
crystal.
Crystals found on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea often exhibit
striking bands of color. Simon and Schuster’s Guide to Gems and Precious
Stones refers to “moor’s head” crystals from this source. In A Guide in Color
to Precious and Semiprecious Stones, Jaroslav Bauer and Vladimir Bouska state
“One end of the crystal may be green, then the colour may change into a yellow
or even a colourless zone, and the other end may be black.” The Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Minerals and Rocks by Dr. Jiri Kourimsky describes them as
“a common occurrence” having “black ends, but a green and pink core.” A similar
crystal exhibiting a red termination is called a “turkhead.” On page 180
of the Simon and Schuster volume, a photograph of a four-carat Brazilian
cabochon gem shows an extremely sharp division of its reddish- brown and
greenish-blue colors. Watermelon tourmaline, usually from Brazil, is an apt
name when the variation of colors occurs in concentric bands with a reddish-pink
center surrounded by a white zone and enclosed in a green “rind.” South Africa
produces material where the color sequence is reversed. Concentrations of
fibrous or acicular inclusions, commonly in green and pink materials, cause
the “cat’s-eye” effect in some stones cut en cabochon. Even the change of
color phenomenon is found in tourmaline. The alexandrite-like gems change
from yellowish-green in balanced white light to reddish-orange in incandescent
light.
Tourmaline possesses strong pyroelectric and piezoelectric properties. [The
following is quoted from the American Geological Institute’s Glossary of
Geology: “piezoelectric effect; In certain crystals, the development of an
electric potential in certain crystallographic directions when mechanical
strain is applied”, also pyroelectricity; The simultaneous development, in
any crystal lacking a center of symmetry, of opposite electric charges at
opposite ends of a crystal axis, due to certain changes in temperature.]
The piezoelectric property makes tourmaline useful in the manufacture of
gauges to measure transient blast pressures. Its pyroelectric nature was
discovered as early as the seventeenth century, when long prisms of “Brazilian
emeralds” were brought to Europe by Dutch traders. George Kuntz, in The Magic
of Jewels and Charms, tells of children using such “aschentreckers” warmed
by the sun to attract and repel straw and ashes.
The electrical properties of the stone also intrigued Benjamin Franklin.
When “some ingenious gentlemen from abroad” denied its negative polarity,
he concluded the examined specimens were improperly cut. He wrote the following
in a letter, dated 7 June 1795, thanking Dr. William Haberden for two stones,
“the positive and negative planes having perhaps been obliquely placed. To
obviate this, I suggest that the positive and negative sides should be accurately
determined before the operation of cutting begins.”
Today, tourmaline’s distinct pleochroism is a more important factor to the
facetor. The weak dichroism of pale colored crystals allows the cutter a
wide latitude on the orientation of facets. With dark material, the placement
of the table facet parallel to the optic axis of the crystal is often necessary
to obtain a lighter more desirable color. Some deep-colored gems, especially
the dark reds, blues, and greens, exhibit a unique loss of transparency if
the table facet is oriented perpendicular to the prism axis. Deep green and
brown crystals exhibit strong pleochroism. In instances when the strength
of the absorption of the o-ray is sufficient to plane-polarize light, only
one edge of absorption may be visible on the refractometer. Such tourmalines
may appear isotropic.
Simon and Schuster’s Guide to Gems and Precious Stones tells of an unusual
property that is characteristic of mid-green tourmaline gems. A unique optical
effect is exhibited when such stones are given a rectangular cut. The way
in which light is reflected from the pavilion facets causes distinctive alternate
longitudinal lines of lighter and darker color.
Because tourmaline occurs in such a wide range of colors, it may be confused
with many other transparent gemstones. Its strong pleochroism and similar
refractive indices to andalusite dictate careful examination of greenish
yellow-brown stones to avoid misidentification. Tourmaline can also be confused
with amethyst, citrine, apatite, peridot, topaz, danburite, idocrase, synthetic
spinel, glass, and other materials. Tourmaline’s lack of cleavage is a factor
in distinguishing it from hornblende. Simon and Schuster’s Guide to Rocks
and Minerals makes note of the fact that synthetic tourmaline, which is now
available, is identifiable only by laboratory tests. However, in their volume
Guide to Gems and Precious Stones, it is stated that rubellite, indicolite,
and green tourmaline “are neither imitated nor produced synthetically.” The
Singhalese word “turamali”, meaning mixed-colored stones, is given by Arem
in the Color Encyclopedia of Gemstones as the source for the name tourmaline.
It is interesting to note that Bauer and Bouska spell the word “toramalli”
and define it as “carnelian”, an alternate spelling of carnelian. Carnelian
is translucent reddish chalcedony.
The pegmatites of Minas Gerais, Brazil have replaced Sri Lanka’s alluvial
deposits as the source of most of the world’s tourmaline material. Especially
vibrant “cotton candy” colored gems come from deposits in and near Paraiba.
These “paraibas” command premium prices. Tourmaline deposits in Nigeria and
Namibia yield exceptionally fine crystals that may rival the intense color
of the paraibas. Madagascar’s crystals of various colors often resemble those
from Brazil. Fine red “Siberian rubies” are among the many hues found in
the coarse granites of the Urals near Murzinka and Sverdlovsk. The largest
gem quality crystals are recovered in Mozambique. A magnificent 42-cm long,
rich red specimen from Mozambique’s Muiiane area is on display in the museum
in Lourenco Marques.
With the exception of schorl, of pegmatitic origin, tourmaline is a late
pegmatitic hydrothermal product. Inclusions of protogenetic minerals, such
as apatite, pyrite, colorless quartz, mica crystals and hornblende, are common.
Concentrations of mineral fibers, perhaps amphiboles, cause the cat’s-eye
phenomenon in some tourmalines. Gas may fill small internal fractures in
red tourmaline, and very flat films can reflect light.
Two specific types of inclusions, however, developed syngenetically in the
hydrothermal environment. Growth tubes, resembling gramophone needles parallel
to the crystal axis, are long liquid filled channels extending from tiny
crystals. This “mother liquor” may be accompanied by a secondary liquid as
well as a gas bubble. These tubes occur mainly in blue, green, red, and pink
material, and if densely packed, can cause the cat’s-eye effect. Diagnostic
“trichites,” which are also 2-phase inclusions, differ sharply from growth
tubes and are common to all tourmalines. The irregular hair-fine networks
formed by partially healed crevice surfaces consist of tiny capillaries and
vesicles filled with syngenetic secondary fluid. Tourmalines develop in an
especially complex chemically rich environment. So few are completely free
of inclusions. Black acicular tourmaline is sometimes found as protogenetic
inclusions in transparent “tourmalated quartz.”
The lovely colors of rubellite, the green “chrome tourmalines”, the vibrant
“paraibas”, and the exquisite gems from Nigeria and Namibia are most in demand
today. The consumer has an extensive palette of hues from which to choose.
With hardness comparable to quartz and the lack of a perceptible cleavage,
tourmaline is an excellent choice for all types of jewelry, including rings
and bracelets.
In the following, each species is listed separately, and information specific
to each one is presented. Properties common to all species are shown also
shown.
Buergerite
NaFe3Al6B3Si6O30F
Sodium aluminum borosilicate
A bronze iridescent schiller lying just below the crystal surface is characteristic
of this yellow-brown to black specie of tourmaline. The specific gravity
can vary from 3.29 to 3.32. The ordinary ray of the refractive index is 1.735,
while the extraordinary ray reading can fall between 1.655 and 1.670. This
results in a birefringence range of 0.065 to 0.080. The pleochroic colors
of yellow-brown and pale yellow are the norm. Buergerite is found in rhyolite
near San Luis Potosi in Mexico. Its name honors the crystallographer and
research scientist, Professor Martin J. Buerger.
Dravite
NaMg3Al6B3Si6O27(OH)3(OH,F)
Magnesium aluminum borosilicate
This yellow-brown to black tourmaline specie forms a series with schorl and
with elbaite as well as with uvite [Simon and Schuster’s Guide to Rocks and
Minerals]. Dravite crystals are usually found in contact metamorphic and
metasomatic rocks, pegmatites, and crystalline limestones. Deposits in the
Carinthian district of Drave, Austria are the source of its name. It occurs
in Crevoladossola, Novara, Italy and at Gouverneur, in St. Lawrence County,
DeKalb and Pierrepont, New York, [USA]. Kenya produces both red and yellow
material. Deposits yielding excellent intense red crystals exhibiting the
properties of refractive indices [e = 1.623, o=1.654, density = 3.07] and
[e = 1.626, o = 1.657] and a specific gravity of 3.04 are located there.
The yellow crystals present slightly lower readings [e=1.619, o = 1.642 with
S.G. = 3.04]. Red crystals from near Chipata, Zambia exhibit properties quite
similar to the Kenyan red material. Crystals with pyramidal form are found
in Australia near Yinnietharra. Numerous pairs of pleochroic colors can be
displayed in dravite: colorless/yellow, light yellow/orange-yellow, yellowish
to pale brown/medium to deep brown, deep green/yellow-green, and blue-green/yellow-green.
Chromdravite
NaMg3Cr6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4
Sodium magnesium borosilicate
Aluminum is absent, and chrome is present, which give an intense green color
to chromdravite found in the central Karelian region, located near the eastern
border of Finland. The refractive indices are among the highest for the tourmalines
[o = 1.778 e = 1.772]. The pleochroic colors are dark green and
yellow-green, respectively. The density of 3.39 – 341 is the greatest of
the several tourmaline species. The chemical composition accounts for its
name.
Ferridravit
(Na,K)(Mg,Fe+2)3Fe6+3(BO3)3Si6O18(O,OH)4
Iron Magnesium borosilicate
Aluminum is also absent from this tourmaline specie. Its colors range from
brown to dark yellow-green. Pleochroic colors of deep-brown to deep olive-green/pale
brown to pale olive-green are the norm. Optical properties include a birefringence
of 0.057 with refractive index readings of e = 1.743 and o = 1.80 to 1.82.
With a variation of 3.18 to 3.33, the density is a bit less than that of
chromdravite.
Elbaite
Na(Li,Al)3Al6B3Si6O27(OH)3(OH,F)
Sodium lithium aluminum borosilicate
Elbaite is one of the two species of tourmaline most used as gem material.
Its name is derived from the Isle of Elba, Italy, the source of some of the
finest of these lithium-rich tourmalines. The extensive deposit at Newry,
Maine [USA] yields stunning colors of pink, red, blue, blue-green and green
crystals. An uncommon pastel pink is found at Pala, California. Nuristan,
Afghanistan is known for superb emerald green, blue, and pink material. Minas
Gerais in Brazil produces gem quality crystals in large sizes and a wide
range of colors, as well as watermelon, bi-color, and tourmaline cats-eye
material. The Jonas Lima mine is the source of fine, extremely large cranberry-colored
crystals. Excellent dark red crystals are found at Ouro Fina.
The rubellite from Madagascar is prized, and the Somabula Forest region in
Zimbabwe produces excellent elbaite. Various pale colors and bi-colors are
produced at Alta Lingonha, Mozambique. Violet, blue and red crystals are
extracted from the decomposed granites at Nerchinsk and Mursinka in the Urals.
Pink elbaite is found with red crystals at Mogok in Myanmar [Burma]. The
deposit near Klein Spitzkopje, Otavi, Namibia yields various colors including
numerous shades of green. The green elbaite crystals produced in Kashmir,
India exhibit a specific gravity of 3.05, refractive indices of 1.622-1.643
and birefringence of 0.021. Deposits at Usakos, Namibia yield excellent green
chrome tourmaline. The vivid green crystals from Tanzania contain traces
of chrome and vanadium. Zambia is the source of a yellow manganese-bearing
elbaite resembling tsilaisite in color and chemical composition. Color-zoned
material is found at Haddam, Connecticut [USA] and at Glenbuchat, Aberdeenshire,
Scotland.
The density range of elbaite is 2.84-3.10 with the norm of 3.05. Refractive
indices [o =1.619-1.655 e =1.603-1.634] result in a birefringence
that can vary from 0.013-0.024. Pleochroic colors vary according to the body
color of the material.
Gem Color o e
Pink- red pink colorless or pale pink
Blue medium blue colorless, pink or violet
Blue-green bluish green pale green to
violet
Green green yellowish green to yellow
Liddicoatite
Ca(Li,Al)3Al6B3Si6O27(OH)3(OH,F)
Calcium lithium aluminum borosilicate
It was only in recent history that this calcium-rich lithium-bearing tourmaline
specie was differentiated from elbaite and named to honor the late Richard
T. Liddicoat. Madagascar is the source of the sometimes extremely large crystals.
Material exhibiting multi-bands of several colors and fine rubellite are
extracted from these deposits. Like elbaite, the color-range of the normally
medium to lighter hued liddicoatite is extensive. Its physical and optical
properties exhibit few variations from the norm. 3.02 is the usual density
reading. The ordinary ray of its refractive index varies little from 1.637,
while the extraordinary ray is constant at 1.621. Birefringence is 0.016.
The pleochroic colors mimic those of elbaite. However, brown crystals occur
and exhibit o = brown and e = pale brown hues.
Schorl
NaFe32+Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4
Sodium iron aluminum borosilicate
The old mining term denoting any of several dark brown, green, blue-black
or black rocks and minerals has become the accepted name for this common
tourmaline specie that forms a series with dravite. Sites in England are
a major source for the material, but distribution in granite pegmatites is
worldwide. Its frequently hemimorphic, heavily striated prismatic crystals
can attain several feet in length. Acicular crystals housed in transparent
quartz gives rise to the term “tourmalated” quartz. Schorl’s hardness – 7.25
– is mid-range for tourmaline with a specific gravity of 3.10 – 3.25. Its
refractive indices are a bit above normal with readings of 1.62 – 1.69. During
the Victorian era, faceted schorl, as well as jet, was used extensively in
mourning jewelry. Today, the collectors of unusual gemstones are its principal
market.
Tsilaisite
Na(Mn,Al)3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(O,OH,F)4
Sodium manganese aluminum borosilicate
Manganese oxide can make up as much as 9.2 percent of the chemical composition
of this very rare bright yellow to red tourmaline material found in Zambia.
Its birefringence range of 0.023-0.028 is the function of refractive index
readings from 1.622 to 1.648. It exhibits pleochroic colors of yellow-brown
for the ordinary ray and a vivid yellow for the extraordinary ray. The average
specific gravity is 3.13. Confusion with elbaite is a distinct possibility
unless the source and its chemical composition can be established.
Uvite
CaMg3(Al5Mg)B3Si6O27(OH)3(OH,F)
Calcium magnesium aluminum borosilicate
The extensive mineral deposits at Franklin and Hamburg, New Jersey and near
DeKalb and Gouverneur, New York are sources of the dark brown uvite crystals.
A number of years elapsed before uvite was identified as the calcium rich
end member of the solid solution series formed with dravite. Its density
range of 3.01-3.09 is a bit lower than that of dravite. The same is true
of the optical properties range. Refractive indices of o =1.632-1.660 and
e =1.612-1.639 produce a birefringence range of 0.017 – 0.021. The pleochroic
colors are quite similar to those exhibited by dravite. Collectors of unusual
gems may acquire faceted stones, but uvite is practically unknown in the
jewelry trade.
COMPOSITION: See individual specie
CLASS: Silicates
GROUP: Tourmaline
SPECIES: Buergerite; Chromdravite; Dravite; Elbaite; Ferridravite;
Liddicoatite; Schorl; Tsilaisite;
Uvite
VARIETY: By color and by the following designations:
Achroite – colorless
Dravite – yellowish-brown to dark brown
Indicolite (indigolite) – all blue
tones
Rubellite – pink to red – possible
violet tint
Siberite – lilac to violet-blue
Schorl - black
CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Hexagonal [Trigonal]
HABIT: Elongated Prismatic- usually exhibits different
termination forms at opposite ends of vertical axis when doubly terminated
- vertical striations; Columnar; Acicular; Massive
CLEAVAGE: Imperceptible
STREAK: White
FRACTURE: Conchoidal; uneven, Brittle
FRACTURE LUSTRE: Frequently resinous
LUSTRE: Vitreous to resinous
DIAPHANEITY: Transparent Translucent
Opaque
COLORS: All
PHENOMENA: Chatoyancy, Change-of color
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: See specific specie
HARDNESS: 7.0 – 7.5
TOUGHNESS: Good Brittle
REFRACTIVE INDICES: Varies by specie
o = 1.619 to 1.82 e = 1.603 to 1.772
BIREFRINGENCE: See specific specie
OPTIC CHARACTER: Uniaxial (-) Arem
DISPERSION: 0.017
PLEOCHROISM: See specific specie
LUMINESCENCE: Weak- variable – Blue, Newry, Maine– SW-chalky
blue/deep- blue Pink, Brazil – SW-pale blue or light violet Yellow; green;
brown –Tanzania – SW – Strong yellow
SPECTRUM: Usually faint – Not diagnostic
CHELSEA FILTER: No information
AQUA FILTER: No information
SOLUBILITY: Insoluble in acids
THERMAL TRAITS: AVOID THERMAL SHOCK
Fusibility – Variable with composition
Lithium bearing varieties - infusible
Iron-rich varieties – fusible with difficulty
Magnesium-rich varieties – fusible at 3
Brief green flame when fused with boron flux
TREATMENTS: Heat to 450oC to achieve paler hues.
Difficult to detect. Causes brittleness. Opticon for fracture filling.
Irradiation uncommon.
INCLUSIONS: See information above